‘’Evaluate the Claim That Person-Centered Therapy Offers...

Adriaana Nye Module 1 – Essay 2396 words Course code: ‘’Evaluate the claim that Person-centered therapy offers the therapist all that he/she will need to treat clients’’ This essay is intended to explore the statement that Person-centered therapy offers therapists all they need to treat clients. In order to do this I intend to further explore the opinions of other individuals practicing and researching counseling therapies. My first thoughts are that if the Person centered approach was sufficient, there might not have been such a great variety of other approaches such as Cognitive therapy, Existential therapy, Rational Emotive Behavioral therapy, Psychotherapy etc. Hence, we are embarking a course on Psychotherapy. A†¦show more content†¦If, while seeking water, you enter a cave with no oxygen, you will first satisfy the need for air before water or food. If, while trying to leave the cave to get air a rock fall puts you in danger of getting killed, you will seek to satisfy your need for safety before air, water and food and so forth. This explains that’s there is a clear hierarchy as to which need is ‘pre-eminent in consciousness. Carl Rogers believed the core of mans nature is essentially positive. Some may argue that it depends on the individuals own perception of ‘good’ ie suicide bombers vs missionary work. He maintained that the human organism has an underlying actualizing tendency, which aims to develop all capacities in ways that maintain or enhance the organism and move it toward autonomy; Maslow’s self actualization, as aforementioned is basically this. This tendency is directional, constructive and present in all living things. The actualizing tendency can be suppressed but can never be destroyed without the destruction of the organism (Rogers, 1977). The concept of the actualizing tendency is the only motive force in the theory, and is partly steered by the need for unconditional positive regards from others and from self. Although this may be true, some people feel that it can be taken to far and damage growth in children, and also put lives in danger. *1 ‘’Critiques of Rogerss person-centered therapy begin with his basic conception of human nature as tending toward the good andShow MoreRelatedEvaluate the Claim That Person Centered Therapy Offers Tthe Therapist All That He/She Need to Treat Clients2987 Words   |  12 PagesYear Two - Module one | Tutor | Jackie Smith | Essay Title / Work | â€Å"Evaluate the claim that Person-Centred Therapy offers the therapist all that he/she will need to treat clients† | Word Count | 2723 | INTRODUCTION My aim is to explore Carl Rogers theory that Person Centred Therapy was a complete system for therapists to offer help in a counselling way to clients presenting with a full variety of issues. I will do this by establishing my understandingRead MoreEvaluate the Claim That Person-Centred Therapy Offers the Therapist All That He/She Will Need to Treat Clients2502 Words   |  11 Pagesâ€Å"Evaluate the claim that Person-Centred Therapy offers the therapist all that he/she will need to treat clients† The humanistic movement was established as a way to expand and improve upon the two other schools of thought; behaviourism and psychoanalysis, which had, up until the first half of the 20th century dominated psychology. An American theorist called Abraham Maslow began to research creativity in humans through art and science. He first introduced his concept of a hierarchy of needs inRead MorePerson Centered Therapy2327 Words   |  10 PagesEvaluate the claim that Person-centered Therapy offers the therapist all that he/she will need to treat clients. Introduction Person-centered therapy is just one of over more than 300 different types of psychotherapy treatments available to clients, illustrated by Holmes and Lindley (1989) as ranging from Active Analytical Psychotherapy to Zaraleya Psychoenergetic Technique. Over the years, these varying schools of thought have not always seen eye to eye with emphasis being placed on differencesRead MoreModels of Counselling Within My Context2989 Words   |  12 Pagesways, and different forms of helping people. Helping others could make another person feel better either inside, or about them self. ‘Helping’ is one of those taken for granted words. It is a familiar part of our vocabulary. Traditionally, for example, social workers, youth workers and support workers, guidance counsellors and psychologist have been talked about as members of the helping professions. The question, do you need some help? Should be part of our daily business as informal and formal educatorsRead Moreexplore the be havioral and humanistic theory6235 Words   |  25 Pagesoperant conditioning and all behavior is learnt from the environment. One of the early pioneers of humanistic psychology was Abraham Maslow; he established the hierarchy levels of needs and believed that by achieving the needs in the correct order would allow individuals to become self-actualized. However, Carl Rogers a psychologist and father of Client–centered theory felt that in addition to Maslow’s hierarchical needs, in order for someone to achieve self-actualization they need to be in a positiveRead More‘Evaluate the Claim That Person-Centred Therapy Offers the Therapist All That He/She Will Need to Treat Clients.2461 Words   |  10 Pagestitle: ‘Evaluate the claim that Person-Centred Therapy offers the therapist all that he/she will need to treat clients.’ The Person Centred approach is based upon the theory and philosophy of Carl Rogers. This approach in its set-up is familiar to the general public as it is depicted in the media and is often expected therefore that a counselling session would take place in this format. At first glance the counselling process which has derived from the theory of Rogers, in a real therapy situationRead MoreHsm 542 Week 12 Discussion Essay45410 Words   |  182 Pagesand what processes could you implement to reduce the risk of this tort occurring in your own facility? | This section lists options that can be used to view responses. Expand All Collapse All   Ã‚   | Print View   Ã‚   | Show Options  Ã‚   | Hide Options  Ã‚   | Select:   Ã‚   | Mark selected as:   Ã‚   |   View Selected   View All | | Responses Responses are listed below in the following order: response, author and the date and time the response is posted. | | | Response | Author | Date/Time* | Read MoreNursing Essay41677 Words   |  167 PagesHealth http://www.nap.edu/catalog/12956.html Committee on the Robert Wood Johnson Foundation Initiative on the Future of Nursing, at the Institute of Medicine PREPUBLICATION COPY: UNCORRECTED PROOFS Copyright  © National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved. The Future of Nursing: Leading Change, Advancing Health http://www.nap.edu/catalog/12956.html THE NATIONAL ACADEMIES PRESS 500 Fifth Street, N.W. Washington, DC 20001 NOTICE: The project that is the subject of this reportRead MoreCase Study for Management Accounting36912 Words   |  148 Pages Mark A. McFatridge, and Susan B. Hughes, discusses dealing with the financial condition of a not-for-profit organization. University Bottom Line, by Enrico Uliana, discusses management control issues in a university. I thank these authors and all of the other authors who submitted cases to the conference. I also thank members of the editorial board for their help in reviewing cases: Tom Albright, Wayne Bremser, Paul Juras, Ken Merchant, Gary Sundem and, especially, Larry Carr and Jim MackeyRead MoreCase Study for Management Accounting36918 Words   |  148 PagesSmith, Mark A. McFatridge, and Susan B. Hughes, discusses dealing with the financial condition of a not-for-profit organization. University Bottom Line, by Enrico Uliana, discusses management control issues in a university. I thank these authors and all of the other authors who submitted cases to the conference. I also thank members of the editorial board for their help in reviewing cases: Tom Albright, Wayne Bremser, Paul Juras, Ken Merchant, Gary Sundem and, especially, Larry Carr and Jim Mackey

The Youth Oriented Hip Hop Movement - 1498 Words

According to Erikson (1968, referenced by Jacobson, 2009), â€Å"†¦in the social jungle of human existence there is no feeling of being alive without a sense of identity.† It is well understood that, like all individuals, youths especially have a need to belong to a social group. Many youth participate in subculture resistance, apparent through demonstrating language, expression, and fashion that are often opposing parental and authority figures, and the dominant culture. People who have similar characteristics or similar experiences are, according to Jacobson (2009, p. 11), more likely to â€Å"†¦unite in opposition to the dominant culture†. A music genre that distinctly demonstrates such is the hip-hop movement. The youth-oriented hip-hop movement finds its significance in the lives of African-American youths in urban working class settings and their resistance to authority, as well as allowing them to voice their identity and address common issues concernin g race, gang activity, drugs, violence, and sex. While hip-hop has been suggested to have negative impacts on youths in contemporary society, it is known by most to simply be a reflection of the reality. Hip-hop, as an artistic outlet, challenges the dominant culture whereby teens living in urban areas are frequently subjected to violence and harmful activity, and therefore speaks against the structural oppression within society. Emerging out of the South Bronx in the 1970s, hip-hop culture and rap music became a musical instrumentShow MoreRelatedEssay about Hip-Hop1452 Words   |  6 PagesHip-Hop When you hear the phase Hip-Hop what do you think of? Music, Dancing, Rapping? Well, its all of that and more hip-hop is a culture. According to Websters dictionary, culture is defined as the concepts, habits, skills, arts, instruments, institutions, etc. of a given people in a given period; civilization. One artist defined hip-hop as a set of expressions in vocalization, instrumentation, dancing and the visual arts. More specifically, hip hop is a combination of graffiti, breakdancingRead MoreHip Hop Is Not Going Anywhere1545 Words   |  7 PagesSince Old School’s Hip Hop conception, the genre has gone way beyond what the genre’s originators could have imagined. Each period since the founding of Hip Hop has added to the evolution of the culture and have altered it into something that is more than just a hobby, but a mindset and a part of life that cannot be separated from many different cultures globally. In 1977, popular Hip Hop MCs and Djs lived in poverty in New York and in 2016 artist like Sean Combs, Dr. Dre, and Jay-Z are worth $2Read MoreHip Hop Dance : Dance1287 Words   |  6 Pages Hip-hop dance refers to street dance styles primarily performed to Hip-hop music or that have evolved as part of hip-hop culture. Hip-hop dance was created in the 1970’s, this type of dance includes a variety of different styles such as: uprock, break dance also known as â€Å"breaking†, and funky styles. There are just so many different components to hip-hop dance. Hip-hop dance constantly builds up from it’s roots. Each dance builds off of one another in a unique way. Hip-hop dance is very interestingRead MoreHip Hop : A Cultural Movement1851 Words   |  8 Pages Hip-Hop is a cultural movement that emerged from the ramshackle South Bronx, New York in the early 1970’s. The area’s predominantly African American and Puerto Rican populations originated this musical genre and culture that over the past four decades ha s developed into a global perception impacting the youth culture around the world. â€Å"The South Bronx was a full of political, social, and economic rising in the years leading up to the beginning of Hip-Hop.† The early part of the 1970’s found manyRead MoreBob Marley And The Wailers1654 Words   |  7 Pagesthat of the rise of hip hop in the South Bronx, during the 1970s in USA. In the book Black Noise, Tricia Rose explains the emergence of hip hop as a means for Black cultural expression. Hip hop describes life on margins of postindustrial urban America, and negotiates the experience of marginalization, brutally truncated opportunity, and oppression within cultural imperatives of African-American history. The context of deindustrialization that gave birth to American hip hop is comparable to thatRead MoreThe Impact Of Pop Culture On The Music Industry1720 Words   |  7 Pagesdisplayed perfect, well put together families. 80’s music once filled with e lectric synthesizers and singers professing their love for their partners evolved into Hip Hop and Grunge music that discussed the grittiness of real life and the human struggle most people actually faced. As the decade passed pop culture continued to influence the youth culture with the help of artists such as Robert Wyland and Banksy who brought in a new enlightenment for the preservation of nature and social commentary of warRead MoreHip Hop And Rap Music1584 Words   |  7 PagesHip hop music is one of the most popular genres in present time that rose to prominence in the 1980’s. The hip hop genre was born in the African American community and has since then changed into what it is today. What most individuals don’t know is that originally rap music did not contain such explicit themes as it does now; such as misogyny, drugs, crime, and violence among others. Many people may wonder what led to the introduction of such themes into rap music and why they remained p opular.Read MoreEssay on Hip-hop, Reggae, and Politics5105 Words   |  21 PagesHip-hop, Reggae, and Politics Introduction Music is an art form and source of power. Many forms of music reflect culture and society, as well as, containing political content and social message. Music as social change has been highlighted throughout the 20th century. In the 1960s the United States saw political and socially oriented folk music discussing the Vietnam War and other social issues. In Jamaica during the 1970s and 1980s reggae developed out of the Ghetto’s of Trench town andRead MoreCreative Dance7322 Words   |  30 Pagestraining. Basically, creative dance involves the use of movement elements to express thoughts and feelings. Dimondstein (1974) expands on this deï ¬ nition when she considers dance to be â€Å"the interpretation of a child’s ideas, feelings, and sensory impressions expressed symbolically in movement forms through the unique use of his body† .Creative dance teachers may suggest particular ideas or feelings they want their students to express through movement. Alternativ ely, they may provide a stimulus— for exampleRead MoreEssay about Malcolm X2055 Words   |  9 Pagesto Boston, Massachussetts, to live with his half-sister Ella, and discovered the underground world of African American hipsters. Malcolms entry into the masculine culture of the zoot suit, the conked (straightened) hair, and the lindy hop coincided with the outbreak of World War II, rising black militancy (symbolized in part by A. Philip Randolphs threatened March on Washington for racial and economic justice), and outbreaks of race riots in Detroit, Michigan, and other cities

Disease Prevention and Management Non Communicable Disease

Question: Describe about the Disease Prevention and Management for Non Communicable Disease. Answer: Demographic characteristics of the specific school and surrounding community: Campbelltown Public School is selected as the school for this NCD (non-communicable disease) prevention strategy. This school is located in the City of Campbelltown (New South Wales). According to 2011 Census, approximately 150000 people are living in this city. Female population (51 %) is more as compared to the male population (49 %). Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people comprised of approximately 3.5 % of the total population. This population is the approximately 30 % higher as compared to the Australian population of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people. Median age of the people living in the City of Campbelltown was 33 yrs which was around 4 yrs less as compared to the median age of the Austalian population. In City of Campbelltown, children in the age of 0-14 comprised of 22 % of total population and people above the age of 65 yrs comprised of approximately 10 % population. Around 50 % people above the age of 15 years are married. Weekly income of the people res iding in the City of Campbelltown is approximately similar to the other population of the Australia. Some of the prominent Ancestry staying in the City of Campbelltown is Australian (25 %), English (22 %), Irish (6 %), Scottish (5 %) and Indian (3 %). Some of the prominent languages used in the City of Campbelltown are Arabic, Samoan, Hindi, Bengali and Spanish. Some of the prominent religious affiliation in the City of Campbelltown are Catholic, Anglican, Islam and Hinduism. It has been observed that most of the hospitalizations in City of Campbelltown are due to obesity, coronary heart disease, asthma and COPD (chronic obstructive pulmonary disease) and diabetes. Infectious diseases observed in the City of Campbelltown were hepatitis B C, chlamydia, gonorrhoea and infectious syphilis. Most of the common causes of death in City of Campbelltown were cardiovascular disease, cancer, respiratory disease, endocrine disease, digestive system disease and mental disorders (Swanson, 2016; Campbelltown City Counsel, 2016). Campbelltown Public School is having students of mixed population. In this school, children between the age of 5 to 15 are studying. 45 % children studying in this school are from high socioeconomic class and 55 % children studying in this school are from low socioeconomic class. 60 % students in this school are boys and 40 % are girls. 50 % of the children in this school are basically from the urban area and 50 % are from the rural area. Childrens of different origin like Australian (30 %), English (20 %), Irish (5 %), Scottish (5 %) and Indian (5 %) are studying in this school. Most common disease observed in the children of this school were obesity (15 %), Asthma (7 %) and cold and flu (5 %) (Senz et al., 2015). Etiology and epidemiology of overweight and obesity in the target group: Conditions like overweight and obesity occurs because imbalance in the energy consumption in the form of diet and energy expenditure in the form of physical activities, exercise and bodily functions. There is increased energy consumption in the form of food in the people of City of Campbelltown. This energy consumption is specifically in the form of carbohydrates such as sweetened beverages and potato chips. It has been observed that sweetened drinks such as soft drinks, iced tea, and energy and vitamin water drinks are the main contributing factors for the increased cases of obese and overweight people. In the people of City of Campbelltown, consumption of fast food is increased by three times and energy consumption increased by four times. People with obesity generally underreport consumption of food as compared to the normal people. School going children between the age of 6-12 are more prone to obesity because there is more consumption of fast food and sweetened drink. This consu mption is more in school going children because there is less control on these children. These children used to consume this high energy food both at school cafeteria and at the home. Moreover, these children have less understanding of the negative effect of this type of food. Sedentary lifestyle is also one of the main contributing factors for the rising rate of obese and overweight conditions in the people of City of Campbelltown. Specifically in he children, there is approximately 25 % reduction in the physical activity or exercise due to decreased outdoor sports and increased indoor games with less physical activity. Decreased physical activity in the children is also observed due to the increased use mechanized transportation system. Television viewing for the long duration of time is also one of the contributing factor for the obese and overweight condition in the children (Freemark, 2010; Moreno et al., 2011). In few cases genetic and environmental factors are also responsible for the occurrence of the obese and overweight condition in this population of City of Campbelltown. There is interplay between the genetic and environmental factors for the occurrence of obesity and overweight condition. Polymorphism in the gene which control appetite and metabolism are responsible for the occurrence of obese and overweight condition in this population. It has been established that around 40 genes of the human genome are related to the obese and overweight condition. FTO (food mass and obesity associated gene) is responsible for the occurrence of obese and overweight condition. People with two copies of FTO gene has 3-4kg more body weight and at around 1.7 fold more risk for obesity as compared to the people without risk allele. Other contributing factors responsible for the occurrence of obese and overweight condition in the children are insufficient sleep, smoking, increased use of medications and environmental factors such as pollution (Andersen, 2003). A survey was conducted on health status of the people of City of Campbelltown by NSW Adult Population Health Survey (SaPHaRI), Centre for Epidemiology and Evidence, NSW Ministry of Health. From this survey, it is evident that approximately 35 % people are overweight and approximately 27 % people are obese in the City of Campbelltown. In Campbelltown Public School, approximately 15 % students are obese and 5 % students are overweight. Among these students, approximately 60 % consume junk food, 30 % are with less physical activity and 10 % are having familial history of obesity. Among these obese students approximately 20 % students and their parents are trying to control their obesity. Remaining 80 % students and parents are not at all taking care of their obesity. Justification of stakeholder group selection: In this study stakeholder group selected were students in the age group of 13 15 yrs. This stakeholder group holds all the responsibilities for the implementation this intervention. 20 students were selected for this group and it comprises of 14 boys and 6 girls. These students were selected based on their academic performance in the last four years, communication skills, documentation efficiency and computer efficiency. Effective communication skills are very important aspect in this intervention because these students should convince children in the target group and their parents about the programme to control obesity in the children. Documentaion efficiency is also one of the important aspects in the selection of stakeholders because these stakeholders should document effectively all the information acquired about the children and observation made after the implementation of the prevention strategy for obesity. These senior students were selected because these students can effect ively influence the less age group children as compared to the teachers, family members and other community members. Generally, children spent most of the time with their peers and they follow their senior peers. In this case also, senior students were selected to implement obesity prevention strategy in school going children (Lobstein Swinburn, 2007). Description of the intervention: This intervention is for the control of obesity in the children of age group of 6 12 yrs. This target group comprises of 200 children with 125 boys and 75 girls. This intervention started with collection on data about body weight and BMI (body mass index) of all children in the school. After collections of BMI data, 200 children were selected and these children were divided into two groups comprising of obese (80) and overweight (120) children. Different intervention strategies were planned for obese and overweight children. After the selection of the children for this intervention, data was collected for the food consumption habit, sedentary lifestyle, habit of smoking and family history of obesity. This data was compared with BMI data and correlation was established between these etiological factors and obese and overweight condition in the children. Children were grouped in different groups based on the responsible factor for obese and overweight condition in the children and int erventions were planned according to the etiological factors. Different intervention strategies were planned for these children like peer based approach, school based strategy, family oriented strategy, canteen oriented strategy, community based strategy, classroom based strategy and school environment strategy (Patton, et al., 2005). Peer based approach comprises of influencing junior students by senior students on the food habit and exercise. School based strategy comprises of incorporation of the obesity prevention topic in the curriculum, monitoring canteen facility for junk food, promoting exercise and physical activity and rewarding for the children on the successful control of the obesity (Van Beurden et al., 2003). Family oriented strategy comprises of provision of healthy nutrition, restriction of food prone to the obesity, monitoring of food consumption in the canteen, promoting children for the outdoor activities, restricting TV viewing for the long duration and providing information on the control of obesity. Canteen oriented strate gy comprises of restriction on the supply of high energy food, training for the canteen staff for the preparation of food with low calorie and networking among canteen staff, teachers and family members for the provision of food with low energy. Community based strategy comprises of conducting informative programmes for the obesity control and provision of playground for the children (Timperio et al., 2004; Campbell et al., 2001). Classroom based strategy comprises of incorporation of lectures on the healthy food and obesity control and provision of breaks for eating fruits. School environment strategy comprises of establishment of gardens with vegetable and fruits, provision of purified water, restriction on the local vendor with unhealthy food, incorporation of additional fund for control of obesity, provision of playgrounds for the children and fixing exact timings for meals (Wallin, 2003; Muijs and Reynolds, 2005). Students in the stakeholder group visited each of these above mentioned places and asked to implement these strategies for the selected students in the target group. Implementation of these strategies in school, family and classroom were easy for stakeholder group however it was slight inconvenient for these stakeholders to implement in community based approach. These stakeholders maintained data for each of the children in the target group for 6 months. Data was collected about amount of consumption of food, type of food, number of playing hours, number of hours of watching TV, number of informative lectures conducted for the on healthy food and obesity control. Each stakeholder was handling 10 children in the target group. Students in the stakeholder group collected data at different places like classroom, school and home. This data was collected for each child in the target group on the weekly basis. Body weight was measured every month. Body weight and BMI data for each month was stored in the excel sheet in computer for six months (Moon et al., 1999; Greenburg, et al., 2005). Outline of the communication strategy: Students in the stakeholder group conducted lecturers, presentations and training programmes at school, canteen and social places. Information about these strategies was provided to family members through personal communication. There were different presentations prepared for the different kind of people like teachers, parents, community members and staff of the canteen. Special attention was given to the canteen staff and students in the stakeholders group discussed personally with these staff members. Members of the canteen staff were given training for cooking food with low calorie. Students of the stakeholder group arranged training sessions by experts in the field, for these canteen members. For teachers and parents, lectures and presentations were arranged on weekly basis for 6 months. These lectures and presentations were conducted together for parents and teachers. For each week different topics related to childhood obesity were selected and case studies were incorporated in these presentations to convince parents and teachers about the prevention and cure of obesity. As most of the parents were not educated and didnt understand medical terminology, presentations were prepared for them in a very understandable manner. Students of the stakeholder group visited to the home of selected students in the target group and discussed about this intervention with their parents. At social places, meetings were conducted with the community people to guide them about the information. Education to the students in the target group were provided through informative posters in the school corridor, exhibiting short documentaries related to the prevention of obesity and personal discussion with them (Corcoran, 2013). Outline of the evaluation framework: This intervention was evaluated in terms of three parameters like process evaluation, impact evaluation and outcome evaluation (Sahota et al., 2001). This intervention was very effectively implemented on the target children, parents and teachers. However, implementation of this intervention was difficult on canteen staff and community members. For canteen staff, it was difficult to make them understand about this process. Community members were not interested to implement these interventions. Process implementation was evaluated by asking questions to the target children. Children in the target group were asked to rate, the maximum benefit they got from each intervention strategy. It was observed that, these children got maximum benefit from the parents and followed by teachers. Children in the target group got minimal benefit from the canteen staff members and community members. As parents and teachers implemented this intervention effectively, there was more impact of this interven tion on parents and teachers. It was observed, there was increased knowledge about the healthy food and management strategies for obesity in parents and children. Parents and teachers felt satisfactory about the efforts they put in and outcome they got. Impact of this intervention was more on the children in the target group. Children in the target group exhibited interest to control their obesity and convinced to take food with low calorie. Children in the target group were ready to avoid junk food and sweetened beverages (Fertman and Allensworth, 2016). This intervention had very less impact on the canteen staff members and community members. There was very less augmentation of knowledge in canteen staff and community members. This impact was evaluated by asking questions to these members. Outcome of this intervention was evaluated by recording the type of food consumed, amount of food consumed, body weight and BMI of the children in the target group. It was evident form the analysis of these parameters that, children in the age group between 9 to 12 were more benefited. Children in the age group between 9 to 12 reduced consumption of junk food. There was decrease in the body weight and BMI with respect to consumption of type and quantity of food consumed. Children in the age group 6 to 8 were also benefited from this intervention. However, percentage of children got benefit in age groups 6 to 8 was less as compared to the children of 9 to 12 age group (Rootman, 2001). References: Andersen, R. (2003). Obesity: Etiology, Assessment, Treatment, and Prevention. Human Kinetics. www.humankinetics.com/products/all-products/obesity. Campbelltown City Counsel. (2016). Demographics. Retracted form Downloade from https://www.campbelltown.sa.gov.au/profile on 06.12.2016. Campbell, C., Waters, E., OMeara, S. Summerbell, C. (2001). Interventions for preventing obesity in childhood. A systematic review. Obesity Reviews, 2, 149-147. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12120100. Corcoran, N. (2013). Communicating Health: Strategies for Health Promotion. SAGE Publications. uk.sagepub.com/en-gb/eur/communicating-health/book238746. Fertman, C. I., and Allensworth, D. D. (2016). Health Promotion Programs: From Theory to Practice. John Wiley Sons. https://as.wiley.com/WileyCDA/WileyTitle/productCd-0470241551.html. Freemark, M. (2010). Pediatric Obesity: Etiology, Pathogenesis, and Treatment. Springer Science Business Media. www.springer.com/la/book/9781603278737. Greenburg, M., Weissberg, R., Zins, J., Fredericks, L., Resnik, Hand Elias, M. (2003). Enhancing school based prevention and youth development through coordinated social, emotional and academic learning. American Psychologist, 58(6-7), 466-474. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12971193. Lobstein, T., Swinburn, B. (2007). Global Perspectives on Health Promotion Effectiveness. Springer Science Business Media. www.springer.com/la/book/9780387709734. Moon, A., Mullee, M., Rogers, L., Thompson, R., Speller, V. Roderick, P. (1999). Helping schools become health promoting: An evaluation of the Wessex Healthy Schools Award. Health Promotion International, 14, 111-122. ped.sagepub.com/content/9/1_suppl/29.refs. Moreno, L.A., Pigeot, I., Ahrens, W. (2011). Epidemiology of Obesity in Children and Adolescents: Prevalence and Etiology. Springer Science Business Media. www.springer.com/us/book/9781441960382. Muijs, D., Reynolds, D. (2005). Effective Teaching: Evidence and Practice. Paul Chapman Publishing. London. uk.sagepub.com/en-gb/eur/effective-teaching/book234100. Patton, G. Bond, L., Carlin, J., Thomas, L. Butler, H., Glover, S., Catalano, R. Bowes, G. (2006). Promoting social inclusion in schools: A group-randomized trial on student health risk behaviour and well-being. American Journal of Public Health, 96(9), 1582-1587. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16873760. Rootman, I. (2001). Evaluation in Health Promotion: Principles and Perspectives. WHO Regional Office Europe. https://www.euro.who.int/en/publications/abstracts/evaluation-in-health-promotion.-principles-and-perspectives. Saenz, R., Embrick, D.G., Rodrguez, N. P. (2015). The International Handbook of the Demography of Race and Ethnicity. Springer. www.springer.com/us/book/9789048188901. Sahota, P., Rudolf, M., Dixey, R., Hill, A., Barth, J. Cade, J. (2001). Randomised control trial of a primary school based intervention to reduce risk factors for obesity. British Medical Journal, 323, 1-5. www.bmj.com/content/323/7320/1029. Swanson, D. A. (2016). The Frontiers of Applied Demography. Springer. www.springer.com/gp/book/9783319433271. Timperio, A., Salmon, J., Ball, K. (2004). Evidence-based strategies to promote physical activity among children, adolescents and young adults: review and update. Journal of Science and Medicine in Sport, 7(1), 20-29. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15214598. Van Beurden, E., Barnett, L., Zask, A. Dietrich, U., Brooks, Land Beard, J. (2003). Can we skill and activate children through primary school physical education lessons? a collaborative health promotion intervention. Preventive Medicine, 36, 493-501. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12649058. Wallin, J. (2003). Improving School Effectiveness. ABAC Journal, 23(1), 51-72. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/44825665.

Environmental Policy for Computers & Operations- myassignmenthelp

Question: Discuss about theEnvironmental Policy for Computers Operations. Answer: The preconditions necessary for the proper implementation of the Emissions Trading can be done properly by following some of the preconditions, like The policy implemented must be such so that it should attract the attention of the important decision makers (Choi 2013). This is because of the fact that the decision makers play a very important role in designing the plan and the implementation of the policy. The policy must be instrumental in allowing the companies to utilize the new opportunities, the challenges and also all the available resources in order to make the policy much more systematic, operational and strategic in nature. Coverage Achieving of the environmental objective The policy is so designed that it would be able to control properly the harmful emissions of the carbon dioxide in a very cost effective manner (Yang et al 2016). . emission trading incentives In order to reduce the emission of the harmful gases, the emission trading system uses several methods of reducing the emission on site. One such method is making considerable amount of investment in energy efficiency. It is this approach that can make the business much more sustainable in the recent future. This is also because of the fact that investment in cost saving technologies will lead to a reduction in the overheads as well (Yang et al 2016). C limitations Companies that try to implement this particular policy often can undertake the purchasing of carbon offsets. However, after the purchase of these carbon offsets, the companies do not properly implement the carbon dioxide reduction methods. As a result of which, the companies are just interested in purchasing the carbon offsets rather than reducing the harmful emissions by the application of new technologies (Wang et al 2016). There is also a lack of standard methods of measuring the harmful emissions from the oil sands, which comprises of polluted water and can cause harmful emissions and pollution (Yang et al 2016). It is a regulatory policy as The government has to play a major role in the implementation of the policy. The government must make sure that While designing the emissions trading policy, there must be the selling or the auctioning of the permits by the regulator. This is helpful because while selling or auctioning the regulator can generate the revenues which are usually redistributed or recyclable in nature. This can be used to reduce other taxes. The government also must make sure that the way in which the policy is being designed is suitable enough with the jurisdictions overall climate. There is proper identification of the sources that emit the harmful carbon dioxide gases. There must be proper accumulation of funds in order to endure that the modern and advanced scientific tools can be used for controlling the emissions from the electricity units. The policy implemented must be such so that it should attract the attention of the important decision makers (Choi 2013). The policy must be instrumental in allowing the companies to utilize the new opportunities, the challenges and also all the available resources in order to make the policy much more systematic, operational and strategic in nature. strengths Carbon taxes can be used as a very essential tool of reducing the harmful impacts of the carbon containing fuels. As there is a tax imposed on all the fuels that contains carbon elements, all the firms are naturally inclined towards using more environments friendly production processes. Limitations There can be problems in measuring in how much carbon is being used. Countries may also carry on their business free of cost in other countries carbon taxations. It is a regulatory policy as The government has to play a major role in the implementation of the policy. The role played by Government The Government must make sure that there is fairness present in the imposition of the taxes on the carbon containing fuels. In other words, the Government must make sure that the companies are not able to avoid payment of proper taxes (Yang et al 2016). This taxation system must also benefit the lower income groups in a positive way. Carbon tax must not necessarily turn out to be a bad news for the poor section of the society or the coal mining communities. Rather it must be helpful towards them by providing them sufficient amount of fund for a transition, or for a better and improved life. The Government must set the limit of the carbon tax programs on the different companies in such a way so that there is proper price certainty. This can be done by specifying a certain tax rate for a particular specific year. Apart from this, the taxation on carnon containing fuels must be such so as to allow all the industries in adjusting their emission rates according to their current conditions. In order to lower the emissions, a proper blueprint must be developed for the proper analyzing of the different energy needs or electricity needs in the electricity market of dfferent countries. yes This is because of the fact that there must be proper strategies implemented to look after and guide the proper operation and the evolution of the national electricity market to look after and guide the change towards a low emission future (Orlov et al 2013). References Choi, T.M., 2013. Optimal apparel supplier selection with forecast updates under carbon emission taxation scheme.Computers Operations Research,40(11), pp.2646-2655. Orlov, A., Grethe, H. and McDonald, S., 2013. Carbon taxation in Russia: Prospects for a double dividend and improved energy efficiency.Energy Economics,37, pp.128-140. Wang, Q., Hubacek, K., Feng, K., Wei, Y.M. and Liang, Q.M., 2016. Distributional effects of carbon taxation.Applied Energy,184, pp.1123-1131. Yang, M., Zou, Y., Lo, M. and Chao, Y., 2016. Integrated Supply Chain Inventory Model with Progressive Carbon Taxation. InProceedings of the International MultiConference of Engineers and Computer Scientists(Vol. 2). IMECS.

Poem Research and Analysis Dressmaker

The poem Dressmaker written by Éireann Lorsung is an example of a blank verse. It is not a fixed form of poetry, and the author does not have to follow certain rhyming patterns or structure. Overall, this literary work demonstrates that poetry can explore different themes and subjects and that it can highlight the richness and diversity of human experiences. This is one of the points that can be made.Advertising We will write a custom research paper sample on Poem Research and Analysis: Dressmaker specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More In this poem, the author focuses on the work of a dress-maker who handles textiles, needles, pins, and so forth. This is the main subject of this poem. This text is full of words that may not be familiar to the wide audience. For instance, one can mention Burano lace or cinnabar (Lorsung unpaged). However, one can say that the subject significantly differs from the theme of this poem, and this literar y work has a much deeper meaning. It seems that Éireann Lorsung focuses the richness of human perception and the inability of words to render the feelings and emotions of an individual. This is one of the main ideas that the writer emphasizes in Dressmaker. By looking at this poem from this perspective, one can better understand this literary work and the message that the writer wanted to convey. Éireann Lorsung wants the readers to be interested both in the subject and the theme of the poem. For instance, the author gives readers insights into the work of a tailor and his/her experiences. The writer achieves this goal in a very unusual way; namely she includes the terms that are often used by dress-makers and uses them in a poetic way. This is one of the details that immediately attract the attention of the readers. One can argue that the theme of this work is also worth attention. Éireann Lorsung skillfully demonstrates the complexity and richness of human sensations a nd she does it by relying on vivid imagery, musical devices, and so forth. In this way, the writer explores the complexity of individual’s feelings and emotions. This is one of main aspects that should be emphasized. Another issue that should be discussed is the musical devices that Éireann Lorsung adopts in this work. In particular, one can speak about the repetition of words and sounds, especially consonants. For example, one can look at the following line, ‘’Nothing touches like tan velvet touches† (Lorsung unpaged). In this case, the writer employs consonance when describing the experience of the character.Advertising Looking for research paper on literature languages? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Nevertheless, one should pay more attention to the figurative language of the author. For instance, one can speak about personification. This means that the author ascribes the actions of a human being to inanimate objects. When Éireann Lorsung speaks about textiles, the author uses the following words, â€Å"Now the cracks come because what gives without taking?†(Lorsung unpaged). In this case, the author strongly relies on irony when depicting the experiences of the character. The most important idea of this poem is that every person has very rich sensations, and this person can use complex language in order to describe these feelings and emotions. The poem evokes an image of a tailor who tries to express poetic feelings with the help of the language that is most familiar to his or her. This image can be critical for understanding this literary work. On the whole, this poem can be of some interest to the readers because it can illustrate the poetry can take a great number of forms. Moreover, it can explore various forms. This is one of the reasons why it is worth reading. The unusual imagery and word choices of the author single out the poem Dressmaker among ma ny others. Works Cited Lorsung, Éireann 2007. Dressmaker. Web. https://poets.org/poem/dressmaker. This research paper on Poem Research and Analysis: Dressmaker was written and submitted by user Harvey Cole to help you with your own studies. You are free to use it for research and reference purposes in order to write your own paper; however, you must cite it accordingly. You can donate your paper here.

Film review on Toy Story showing the journeys involved

Film review on Toy Story showing the journeys involved Disneys No.1 box office smash hit and the recipient of a special Academy Award Toy Story!Toy Story is the groundbreaking 1995 motion picture developed by Disney and Pixar and directed by John Lasseter. Combined with visual wizardry, uproarious laughs and the coolest characters ever assembled transform the worlds first computer-animated feature into an incomparable movie experience of fun and adventure.On the front cover of the movie, there is a shot of Buzz flying into the air with Woody holding on to his arm. Below on Andys bed are the less important characters. The camera shows a high angle shot with a close up of Buzz and Woody and is also looking down on the other characters in the distance. The concept of journey is emphasised by showing Buzz and Woody closer at a high angle shot and flying into the air to an unknown destination.The back cover of the movie also shows a few scenes of their journey.Buzz LightyearOne shows Buzz and Woody on a racing car trying to escape from a dog that is chasing them. The look of fear on their faces, the background of cars and the road rushing behind them suggests a fast paced movement.Toy Story is a film which represents journey through many different aspects. There are two physical journeys shown in this film. One of the journeys is of a young boy named Andy having to move to a new home, the other is of two action figures by the name of Buzz Lightyear and Woody, the pull-string cowboy, having to get back to their owner, Andy.In the opening scene, the protagonist, Woody is introduced when playing with Andy. Majestic music is being played in the background; this highlights the importance of the character to Andy and...

Vacation with Carnival Cruise Lines to the Western Caribbean Research Paper

Vacation with Carnival Cruise Lines to the Western Caribbean - Research Paper Example that had mainly been known for lard production and exportation by the Spanish became a profitable center for the sugar trade (â€Å"Background Notes: Jamaica†). In 1831, however, slave revolts all but demolished the sugar business, devastating many plantations and estates (Koss 179). In 1834, slavery was abolished, and currently Jamaica exports not only sugar and rum as its main products but bananas, coffee, and citrus fruits (â€Å"Background Notes: Jamaica†). The economy of Jamaica has suffered in the previous years due to recessions, with over 20% of the country living in poverty as of early 2011, up from 9.9% in 2007 and 16.5% in 2009 (Thame). Though the percentages are steadily rising, it is important to remember that things such as production conditions are causing this, such as the high cost of doing business in Jamaica, high taxes, and other factors (Thame). Tourists should not let themselves be put off by this and avoid Montego Bay, as there is still plenty tha t a traveler would not want to miss out on! Montego Bay, known as the â€Å"second city† of Jamaica, has known both good times and hard times in its history. It was in Montego Bay that Columbus first landed, calling it the â€Å"Gulf of Good Weather† (Koss 178). It was in Montego Bay that most trading took place, and until the slave revolts, enjoyed a bustling business with many ships coming in and out of its harbor (Koss 178). It was in and of itself the setting for the slave revolts in 1831, and its courthouse was used for retribution against those unlucky enough to be on the losing side of the rebellion, once it had been quashed by local militia (Koss 178). The sugar trade declined until the developments of both the banana trade and the tourist trade in the late 1880s, when a sanitarium was built and... Vacation with Carnival Cruise Lines to the Western Caribbean As an added bonus, while traveling on the cruise, there are always things to do aboard ship, thereby eliminated the (sometimes) boring in-between travel time between destinations, alongside the fact that most of everything is usually included in the cruise package while aboard ship (though it is always advisable to check with not only a travel agent, but with the cruise line directly, and ask for a concrete list of what is and is not included before boarding.) Included in this package will be stops at Montego Bay, Jamaica, the island of Grand Cayman, and Cozumel, Mexico. Whether the main point of the journey is sun and surf, tourist traps, ancient ruins or simply some time away, each destination is sure to delight and charm every traveler into wanting to return. Visitors should be wary in taking the approach to the Caribbean of â€Å"seen one island, seen them all.† Without a doubt, something different can be had at every stop, for every visitor. In Montego Bay, Jamaica, sample a wide variety of cuisine, or stop at a local roadside shack for a patty-snack while touring the historic district. Once at Grand Cayman Island, take the time to play with the sea turtles or stingrays, do some snorkeling, and take a tour of the Tortuga Rum Factory. Round out the day with duty-free shopping, making sure to give everything a good look. After debarking at Cozumel, the Mayan ruins and botanical gardens will delight any nature lover and history enthusiast, as long as time is planned for accordingly.

Harley Davidson Branding Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2750 words

Harley Davidson Branding - Essay Example Within this spectrum of understanding, a product’s brand is understood as a dynamic entity constituted by consumer and community engagement. Further considerations examine the economic and identity-forming elements of brand design. This research specifically considers the community-branding and identity-branding models as they are implemented by and exemplified in the Harley Davidson motorcycle company. Analysis Background Harley Davidson is today recognized as one of the preeminent American brands. Fig. 1 below depicts the Harley Davidson logo. While Harley Davidson is a vibrant 21st Fig. 1 Harley Davidson Logo century organization, the company began in the first decade of the 20th century. William Harley and Arthur Davidson founded the organization in Milwaukee, Wisconsin in 1903 (Mitchel 2007, p. 5). The organization’s first productions were not motorcycles, but engines that were featured for sale in a variety of magazines. During the first decade of their existence they experienced gradual growth through the establishment of a variety of factories in addition to the development of full motorcycles. By 1914 the organization had surpassed their primary rival Indian and would dominate motorcycle for many years, as production numbers increased to 16,284 machines annually (Mitchel 2007, p. 30). By 1920 the organization was the largest motorcycle manufacturer in the world and has expanded their operation to over 67 countries (Mitchel 2007, p. 32). The organization was one of the two major motorcycle manufacturers to survive the Great Depression. Still, it wasn’t until World War II that the company began producing pre-depression levels of motorcycles, as they began providing the military (Mitchel 2007, p. 35). In 1969 American Machine and Foundry (AMF) purchased the organization. Following the purchase the organization faced increasing competition from Japanese manufacturers (Mitchel 2007). In the early 1980s the organization was sold again to Vaughnn Beals and Willie G. Davidson (Mitchel 2007, p. 114). Upon assuming control of the organization, the direction was changed to reflect more retro principles; by 1990 they had again regained control of the heavyweight motorcycle market in the United States. While the organization has survived tremendous social and cultural upheaval both within the organization and the broader business climate, to a large degree the product designs of the company maintained relative consistency. In terms of product design, the organization is highly unique in its motorcycle productions. In these regards, the motorcycles generally weigh more than traditional motorcycles and are accompanied with loud and distinctive exhaust and design; in 1994 the organization even attempted to attain a patent for its motorcycle sound, yet was ultimately rebuffed in its efforts. In terms of specific design elements, the current Harley Davidson motorcycles reflect that classic designs that were produced during the early parts of the 20th century (Mitchel 2007). Indeed, the organization’s efforts to develop product differentiation have generally experienced failure over the past decades. Some of the most notable elements related to modern incarnations of Harley Davidson have been the cultural elements related

Final Review Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words - 1

Final Review - Assignment Example a. In his book, Momaday has brought up a unique platform and from this one can view the cultural history of the Kiowa people. Through this book, Momaday has been able to bring out his own sense of background. The book has been structured to bring out a sense of purpose for Momaday who is a Kiowa Indian in the sense that he was born of that origin. Though he was born into that culture, he received his education in the American way. The book is structured to bring out the ancestral heritage of the Kiowa Indians, and in his own way he has constructed this in his book through the dominant culture, his own memory of the events and also, his imagination so that the structure of the book can come out right. He has managed to bring out the origin of the Kiowa people, their development of their own culture and how they still exist up to date. He has managed to carry on the mantel of their tradition (Momaday, 45). b. The way to the rainy mountain is a book written by Momaday who tells of his a ncestor’s, the Kiowa Indians and their origin, their cultures and tradition and also how they still exist today through imagination and through writing about them (Momaday, 12). The genre of this book is Folklore, which basically means that it mainly consists of legends, oral history, jokes, proverbs, popular beliefs, stories and customs. The absolutely true diary of a part time Indian is a book about a young Indian who grew up on a reservation and decided to go to a white school where he starts being treated as an outcast. The book tells of his struggle to gain his status both in school and at the reservation. The genre of this book is young-adult fiction in that it is one targeted for adolescents and young adults (Sherman, 14). c. Wampum can be described as the sacred shell beads that were traditionally used by the Eastern Woodlands tribes. These were the indigenous people of North America. They were at times used as currency during the colonist’s period. They were s ignificant in terms of being used as a symbol for tradition like in marriages. Some of the uses include being used to mark exchanges such as in marriages, engagements and also agreements in terms of betrothal. Question 2 Historical events would likely to have been interpreted from a Native American point of view rather than an Anglo American point of view because in the real sense, Native Americans were the initially the inventors of most traditions and those traditions still exist and thus, their experience is much more exhibited. Native Americans and their history have become the interest of many people, both Indians and non-Indians alike. There is an interesting fact about discussing the history of Indians and thus it brings out an informative and appealing manner to their history (Mary, 22). a. When the congress unilaterally decided to stop making treaties with the Native Nations and forced assimilation, there were many effects and affects that followed. There was the assassinat ion of resistance leaders and also some of the leaders were separated from their people and imprisoned in certain remote facilities like Fort Marion. Geronimo was among those imprisoned (Geronimo, 45). b. The Native Americans would classify the

Emotional Intelligence and Leadership Effectiveness

Emotional Intelligence and Leadership Effectiveness Contemporary organizations are faced with demands and pressures of ever expanding magnitude that the quest for effective leadership continues to intrigue educators, researchers, and practitioners. In this context, the present paper focuses on the importance of emotional intelligence (EI) in relation to leadership effectiveness. A significant amount of research and attention has been given to identifying relationships between emotional and social intelligence regarding, life satisfaction, personality, social relationships, team performance, education and leadership. Today, in light of the increasingly complex and changing world, researchers have highlighted the need for a new leadership approach. Through research in the area of personal-best experiences, Kouzes and Posners five identified leadership practices, which were identified through studies associated with the stories of leaders who were able to get extraordinary things done in their organizations Underlying Kouzes and Posners Model is the leaders ability to generate, encourage, and promote healthy, reciprocal, and collaborative relationships. This interpersonal or relational aspect of leadership has recently been connected to the emotional intelligence constructs that have gained popularity in recent decades. Emotional intelligence skills provide developing leaders with an increased understanding of the impacts of emotions within a team or organization. Caruso and Salovey demonstrated the advantages EI has with respect to six common challenges in leadership: (a) building effective teams, (b) planning and deciding effectively, (c) motivating people, (d) communicating a vision, (e) promoting change, and (f) creating effective interpersonal relationships. This paper ends by highlighting the impact of Emotional Intelligence in the leadership style of resonant and dissonant leaders. Introduction Contemporary organizations are faced with demands and pressures of ever expanding magnitude that the quest for effective leadership continues to intrigue educators, researchers, and practitioners. Goleman, Boyatzis, and McKee (2002) explained that, leaders everywhere confront a set of irrevocable imperatives, changing realities driven by profound social, political, economic, and technological changes. During these changing times, it is most important for organizational leaders to stay attuned to their own emotional reactions to pressures, as well as how those environmental pressures affect their constituents. Hence todays organizations need a transformational change, calling for new leadership. In this context, the present paper focuses on the importance of emotional intelligence (EI) in relation to leadership effectiveness. EI Research The concept of emotional intelligence has gained popularity in recent decades; however, the characteristics and concepts associated with EI are rooted in research conducted throughout the twentieth century. Earlier works identified competencies, other than general intelligence, that contributed to life success. Thorndike (1937) reported the concept of social intelligence. Wechsler (1940) fought for the addition of non-intellective aspects as a measure of general intelligence. Likewise, Leeper (1948) purported that emotional thought should be considered when reviewing the concept of logical thought. However, it was not until the 1980s that the current concepts related to emotional intelligence started to emerge. Gardner (1983) shared a theory of multiple intelligences that encouraged researchers to step outside the notion that human beings are confined to a singular or plural view of intelligence. Gardner purported that there were five more intelligences that were equally important to collective human intelligence: musical intelligence, spatial intelligence, bodily-kinesthetic intelligence, interpersonal intelligence, and intrapersonal intelligence. Within these multiple levels of human development or intelligences, a movement evolved that expanded two particular areas of Gardners approach (i.e., interpersonal and intrapersonal intelligences). According to Bar-On (2002), several researchers expanded Gardners interpersonal and intrapersonal intelligences into six primary components of emotional intelligence: emotional self-awareness, assertiveness, empathy, interpersonal relationship, stress tolerance, and impulse control. Researchers generally agree that EI addresses ones ability to identify, interpret, and control his or her own emotions, as well as stay in tune with, understand, and relate to the emotions of groups and individuals (Goleman et al., 2002; Bar-On, 2002; Mayer Salovey, 1993). Additionally, EI stems from ones ability to utilize emotional information to appropriately solve problems and make environmentally savvy decisions. In the last two decades of the 20th century and more recently in the 21st century, a significant amount of research and attention has been given to identifying relationships between emotional and social intelligence regarding, life satisfaction (Palmer, Donaldson, Stough, 2002), personality (Higgs Rowland, 2001; Schulte, Ree, Carretta, 2004), social relationships (Lopes, Salovey, Straus, 2003; Massey, 2002), team performance (Rapisarda, 2002), education (Jaeger, 2003; Zeidner, Roberts, Matthews, 2002), outdoor leadership training (Thompson, 2004) and leadership (Goleman, 1998, 2001; Dulewicz Higgs, 2003; Cherniss Goleman, 2001). Leadership Theory Historically, social changes have been charted, coordinated, and led by a few leaders who had the ability to energize and motivate constituents or community members to stand tall, shed fears, and push forward the need for change. Today, in light of the increasingly complex and changing world, researchers have highlighted the need for a new leadership approach (Yukl Lepsinger, 2004; Kouzes Posner, 2002; Goleman, Boyatzis, McKee, 2002). Though researchers have been studying leadership and leadership development since the days of Aristotle and Plato (Leonard, 2003), the study of leadership has been plagued with an overabundance of theories with little common direction (Chemers, 1993; Northhouse, 1997; Day, 2001). Chemers (2000) conducted a historical overview and analysis of leadership theories and concluded that common findings in leadership studies have led to the following three tasks that leaders must achieve to be effective: (a) establish the legitimacy of their authority, (b) coach, guide, and support their constituents in ways that allow for both group and individual goal attainment, and (c) identify and employ the strengths and abilities found in themselves, as well as their constituents, to accomplish the organizational mission. Astin and Astin (2000) called for a leader who can be adaptive and promote creative solutions to modern societal problems. They further explained that to cope effectively and creatively with these emerging national and world trends, future leaders will not only need to possess new knowledge and skills, but will also be called upon to display a high level of emotional and spiritual wisdom and maturity. Hence, there is little doubt that our turbulent world requires a new perspective on leadership (Komives, Lucas, McMahon, 1998). Through research in the area of personal-best experiences, Kouzes and Posners five identified leadership practices, which were identified through studies associated with the stories of leaders who were able to get extraordinary things done in their organizations (Kouzes Posner, 2002). These leadership practices include Modeling the Way, Inspiring a Shared Vision, Challenging the Process, Enabling Others to Act, and Encouraging the Heart. Relational Leadership: Five Practices of Exemplary Leaders Effective leadership is about creating reciprocal relationships between the leader and followers, subordinates, or constituents that in turn creates the foundation for organizational and group success (Bass, 1985; Chemers, 1993; Komives, Lucas, McMahon, 1998; Kouzes Posner, 2003; Potter, Rosenbach Pittman, 2001). The Kouzes and Posners Five Practices of Exemplary Leadership Model has been noted for its contributions to the Relational Leadership paradigm (Komives, Lucas, McMahon, 1998; Endress, 2000; Berg, 2003). Kouzes and Posner (1987) conducted research in the area of personal best leadership experiences. They developed a Personal-Best Leadership Experience questionnaire, asked thousands of managers to complete the questionnaire, and conducted many follow-up interviews to gather additional information. The personal-best questionnaire asked managers to pick a project, program, or event that they characterized as their personal-best leadership experience. After analyzing the data collected from questionnaires and interviews, Kouzes and Posner found that despite the variety in situations and types of leadership experiences, similar patterns were identified related to actions taken by the leaders during the experience. Through the analysis process they identified Five Practices of Exemplary Le adership that contributed to getting extraordinary things done in organizations: Modeling the Way Inspiring a Shared Vision Challenging the Process Enabling Others to Act and (e) Encouraging the Heart. The first practice is Modeling the Way, in which leaders role model the behaviors they want the see in their constituents. Through action and involvement, leaders earn the right to lead and the respect of their followers. The second leadership practice is Inspiring a Shared Vision. This is when the leader imagines what the organization could be and then creates a vision that is attainable and attractive. The leader connects this new vision to the hopes and dreams of his or her constituents to generate passion and enthusiasm for realizing the vision. The third leadership practice is Challenging the Process. Exemplary leaders are pioneers who know that innovation and change involves experimentation, risk, and failure. A leader understands that change can feel uncomfortable and then builds constituent confidence by pursuing change incrementally and by accomplishing small victories. The fourth leadership practice involves Enabling Others to Act. Successful leaders understand that leadership is a team effort and are not afraid to share the leadership process. Leaders foster collaboration and build trust by supporting and encouraging their constituents to do good work. Leaders who are able to build trusting and collaborative relationships find that their constituents are higher performers and even exceed their own personal expectations. Finally, exemplary leaders Encourage the Hearts of their constituents to help them carry on in the face of challenge, frustration, and discouragement. Leaders know that celebrations and rituals, when done with authenticity and from the heart, build a strong sense of collective identity and community spirit that can carry a group through extraordinarily tough times. Relational Leadership and EI Underlying Kouzes and Posners Model of Exemplary Leadership Practices is the leaders ability to generate, encourage, and promote healthy, reciprocal, and collaborative relationships. This interpersonal or relational aspect of leadership has recently been connected to the emotional intelligence constructs that have gained popularity in recent decades (Mayer Salovey, 1997; Bar-On, 2002; Goleman, 1995). Researchers agree that there is considerable overlap between relational leadership and EI competencies in both content analysis and empirical evidence (Higgs, 2002; Dulewicz Higgs, 2003). Goleman (1998) made connections between emotional intelligence and leadership practices in which he boldly claimed that highly emotionally intelligent leaders and work teams contribute significantly to the overall success and bottom line of the organization. Goleman, et al. (2002), when talking about building a culture of change in an organization, assert the following: Emotionally intelligent leaders know how to manage their disruptive emotions so that they can keep their focus, thinking clearly under pressure. They do not wait for crisis to catalyze a need for change; they stay flexible, adapting to new realities ahead of the pack rather than just reacting to the crisis of the day. Even in the midst of vast change, they can see their way to a brighter future, communicate a vision with resonance, and lead the way. Positive emotional leadership is a necessity in times of chaos and change because constituents closely examine and then emulate or mirror their leaders behaviors and actions (Goleman, Boyatzis, McKee, 2002). In other words, constituents, either consciously or unconsciously, react to a leaders verbal and non-verbal responses to a specific crisis or challenge (Caruso Salovey, 2004). Dulewicz and Higgs (2003), identified common EI elements that have been linked to effective leadership characteristics: (a) self-awareness, (b) emotional resilience, (c) motivation, (d) interpersonal sensitivity, (e) influence, (f) intuitiveness, and (g) conscientiousness and integrity. Ultimately, leadership is a social and emotional process, and effective leaders are able to harness those social and emotional ties to successfully pilot organizations through chaos and rapid change. EI and Leadership Challenges Emotional intelligence skills provide developing leaders with an increased understanding of the impacts of emotions within a team or organization. Caruso and Salovey (2004) demonstrated the advantages EI has with respect to six common challenges in leadership: (a) building effective teams, (b) planning and deciding effectively, (c) motivating people, (d) communicating a vision, (e) promoting change, and (f) creating effective interpersonal relationships. Throughout Caruso and Saloveys descriptions of the six challenges, they cited a connection with Kouzes and Posners Effective Leadership Practices Model. 1. Building effective teams The first challenge was building an effective team. Caruso and Salovey discussed the need for clarifying personal values before attempting to formulate team values. Like Kouzes and Posners model, Caruso and Salovey explained that leaders must identify their own values before clarifying team values. A significant level of trust is important for leading teams, and a leader must generate positive opportunities for meaningful team communication and interaction. Additionally, a leader must have significant self-confidence to give team members credit for accomplishments and not blame them when shortfalls occur. 2. Planning and deciding effectively Caruso and Salovey went on to explain that even though planning and decision-making can seem cognitive and practical, emotions contribute significantly to these activities. Emotionally intelligent leaders possess the ability to remain flexible and open to other alternatives. Additionally, EI leaders take into account how their team members may react to a decision, and then attempt to make decisions that will fit in with the shared values of the team. In the end, this type of flexible decision-making will contribute to the successful implementation of the decision. 3. Motivating people Every leader at one point or another is faced with the question of how to motivate a team. Caruso and Salovey cited Kouzes and Posners (2002) encouraging the heart model as a significant contribution to motivating a team. When a leader expresses appreciation for the accomplishments of team members, they are in many ways providing that added incentive for future successes. Caruso and Salovey also explained that it is important for a leader to celebrate team member successes without promoting or encouraging envy throughout the team. 4. Communicating a vision Furthermore, communication is among the most difficult challenges to leadership. EI leaders base their communication efforts on delivering a message [they] want to deliver and delivering it in such a way that is heard and understood by others. Communication also entails a leaders vision for the future. Caruso and Salovey emphasized that because an EI leader has the ability to understand and empathize with group feelings, he or she will be successful in encouraging team members to buy into their vision of the future. 5. Promoting change In light of rapid worldly changes, a leaders ability to facilitate and encourage change has been a hot topic recently (e.g., Kotter, 1995; Higgs Rowland, 2001). Caruso and Salovey (2004) explained that EI leaders challenge the status quo through innovation, experimentation, and risk-taking. They further explained that most people are resistant to change; however, EI leaders identify, empathize with, and acknowledge resistance and then communicate the need for change and clarify a road map toward successful implementation. 6. Creating effective interpersonal relationships Building effective interpersonal relationships is the foundation of the emotionally intelligent leader. Caruso and Salovey (2004) explained that effective interpersonal relationships include both positive feedback and sincere criticism (p. 209). EI leaders are able to generate relationships that are healthy and mature enough for members to express honest and tactful reactions with other members. Caruso and Salovey explained that emotions contain data and [those] data are primarily communicating information about people and relationships. Being accurately aware of emotions and their meaning provides the emotional intelligent manager with a solid base of understanding of themselves and of others. Along with understanding and interpreting emotions, it is equally important for leaders to understand the impact of emotions on individual and organizational performance. EI and Resonant / Dissonant leaders Goleman, Boyatzis, and McKee (2002) shared two leadership styles that relate both positively and negatively to emotional intelligence and contribute significantly to productivity and work satisfaction: dissonance and resonance. Goleman, et al. explained that a dissonant leadership style demonstrated characteristics that are not emotionally effective or supportive within an organization. A dissonant leader is one who offends constituents and creates an unhealthy and unproductive emotional environment within the organization. They described dissonant leaders as leaders who are so out of touch with the feelings of their constituents that they create a negative environment, which in turn moves the organizations attitude toward that leader on a downward spiral from frustration to resentment, rancor to rage. Dissonant leaders were also described as authoritarian, untrustworthy, uncooperative with constituents, unharmonious with the group, abusive, and humiliating. Resonant leaders, on the other hand, project an emotional atmosphere that is comfortable, cooperative, supportive, and enthusiastic. They inspire shared values and rally people around a worthy goal. Goleman, et al. described four leadership styles that build resonance within the organization: (a) visionary moves people towards a shared dream, (b) coaching connects personal desires with organizational goals, (c) affiliative creates harmony by connecting people to each other, and (d) democratic values input and builds commitment through participation. As mentioned earlier within the area of modeling, the concept of mirroring in relationship to resonance and dissonance within the organization is very important when a leader reacts to both positive and negative situations. When a leader reacts to a negative situation in a concerned but positive fashion, his or her behavior becomes a model which the rest of the organization can follow. Goleman, et al. explained that leaders within organizations are observed for acceptance or rejection to thoughts, projects, or ideas. If a leader shows any nonverbal or verbal gestures, constituents quickly notice and react to those gestures. Emotionally intelligent leaders realize and understand how their emotional reaction can guide and steer the emotions of the entire organization. This concept of resonant and dissonant leadership styles is one example of the power of the emotional climate within an organization. Emotional intelligence has been linked to a number of additional factors associated wit h effective leadership (Goleman, 1998; Kouzes Posner, 2002; Dulewicz Higgs, 2003). Conclusion With the identified benefits of emotional intelligence related to creating and developing positive relationships, combined with the understanding that positive relationships are the core of effective leadership, the idea of emotional intelligence and effective leadership is one that has been well established in the literature. Researchers have started to develop and assess developmental programs for emotional intelligence that coincide with leadership development programs and initiatives. The question most pertinent to those involved research and practice in the area of leadership development is the process by which leaders learn about emotions and the power of emotion on leadership success.

Upton Sinclairs The Jungle as Socialist Propaganda Essay -- Upton Sin

The Jungle as Socialist Propaganda In the world of economic competition that we live in today, many thrive and many are left to dig through trashcans. It has been a constant struggle throughout the modern history of society. One widely prescribed example of this struggle is Upton Sinclair's groundbreaking novel, The Jungle. The Jungle takes the reader along on a journey with a group of recent Lithuanian immigrants to America. As well as a physical journey, this is a journey into a new world for them. They have come to America, where in the early twentieth century it was said that any man willing to work an honest day would make a living and could support his family. It is an ideal that all Americans are familiar with- one of the foundations that got American society where it is today. However, while telling this story, Upton Sinclair engages the reader in a symbolic and metaphorical war against capitalism. Sinclair's contempt for capitalist society is present throughout the novel, from cover to cover, pers onified in the eagerness of Jurgis to work, the constant struggle for survival of the workers of Packingtown, the corruption of "the man" at all levels of society, and in many other ways. To understand the ways in which political systems are important to this novel, it is necessary to define both capitalism and socialism as they are relevant to The Jungle. Capitalism, and more specifically, laissez-faire capitalism, is the economic system in America. It basically means that producers and consumers have the right to accumulate and spend their money through any legal means they choose. It is the economic system most fitting with the idea of the American Dream. The American Dream portr... ... the reader. Capitalism underwent a severe attack at the hands of Upton Sinclair in this novel. By showing the misery that capitalism brought the immigrants through working conditions, living conditions, social conditions, and the overall impossibility to thrive in this new world, Sinclair opened the door for what he believed was the solution: socialism. With the details of the meatpacking industry, the government investigated and the public cried out in disgust and anger. The novel was responsible for the passage of The Pure Food and Drug Act of 1906. With the impact that Sinclair must have known this book would have, it is interesting that he also apparently tried to make it fuction as propaganda against capitalism and pro-socialism. Work Cited: Sinclair, Upton. The Jungle. New York: Doubleday Page & Associates. 1906

Islamic Change Over Time Essay Essay

By the early eighteenth century, the Ottoman Empire was in decline. The weak rulers of the empire left the way open for power struggles among officials, religious experts, and Janissary commanders. Provincial administrators and landholders conspired to drain revenue from the central treasury. The general economy suffered from competition with the West as imported goods ruined local industry. European rivals took advantage of Ottoman weakness. The Austrians pushed the Ottomans from Hungary and the northern Balkans. Russia expanded into the Caucasus and Crimea. The subject Christian peoples of the Balkans challenged their rulers: the Greeks won independence 1830, and Serbia won independence in 1867. European military assaults and diseases destroyed existing civilizations. African and Asian civilizations were able to withstand the early European arrival, but the latter’s continuing development by the end of the eighteenth century made them dominant. The subordinate civilizations reacted differently. Some retreated into an idealized past; others absorbed ideas from their rulers. The various efforts at resistance did not all succeed. Some civilizations survived; others collapsed. The leaders and thinkers of the Islamic world were divided about how to reverse decline and drive back Europeans. They argued over a spectrum ranging from a return to the past to the adoption of Western ways. By the nineteenth century, the Arabs under the weakened Ottoman Empire were exposed to the danger of European conquest. The loss of Islamic territory to the Europeans engendered a sense of crisis in the Middle East. The Muslims had faced the threat of the West since the Middle Ages. Muslims shared many aspects of culture with Judeo-Christian and Greek tradition; their civilization had contributed to the rise of the West. The Muslims had many centers to defend; the fall of the Ottoman Empire did not mean the end of Islamic independence. They had time to learn during the long Western advance. Muslims could cling to the truths of Islam and survive as a people,

Using the Internet for Research, info about EIP Security essays

Using the Internet for Research, info about EIP Security essays As the economy becomes increasingly technology oriented, and an increasing number of customers begin to use the Internet for reasons other than searching, security becomes an extremely important issue. Customers demand satisfaction and security while transferring sensitive data, such as credit card numbers, and companies wish to provide this security blanket to them. The same problems can exist in the use of enterprise information portals and search engines. These company portals depend on the portals ability to keep sensitive data within its walls, while keeping unwanted users out. The ability of hackers and unwanted visitors to crack EIPs security has led to the affordability of security to plummet. The more sensitive information and data being transferred, the more security is needed. This leads to an increase in the money needed to provide this airtight security. Because of this, the MIS portal team has decided to concentrate on the security issues that currently exist in Enterprise Information Portals. I. While the team has seemed to excel in most areas of supportive communication and creative problem solving, problems have risen and do exist. Conceptual blocks, mental obstacles that restrict the way a problem is defined and limit the number of alternative solutions that might otherwise be considered, do exist within certain aspects of the group. The two main categories included information collection and attempts to solve the problem. Security issues within the information technology arena are constantly changing and evolving as old issues are being solved by companies and new ones are developing. Because it is an ever-changing industry, the best information on the topic can be found online. However, a major problem is collecting biased information. While the internet is a great research tool, many websites are written by industry professionals that work either for ...

Crime in America essays

Crime in America essays Every year half a million college students are targets of bias-driven slurs or physical assaults. Every day at least one hate crime occurs on a college campus. Every minute a college student somewhere sees or hears racist, sexist, homophobic or otherwise biased words or images. No campus advertises its crimes or bias incidents; some even hide records and facts from the public eye to avoid having bad reputations. But crime happens, and its scars remain for months, sometimes years. It is, in the words of one expert, The background noise of students lives (Tolerance 1). The best way to fight campus crime is for the students to come together and fight to make a difference. Crime happens on campus, and it happens more than some people realize. Crimes and incidents happen a lot of times because it is students first-time with freedom, or first-time exposure to diverse communities. The big problem with crimes is that victims do not report what happened to them because of the fear of reprisals, embarrassment, and a belief that nothing will be done. A lot of students feel ashamed and are afraid to tell their parents. However, victims are not the only ones not reporting these crimes, college administrators and campus police departments also fail to report and investigate such crimes. The reason for this is that no college wants a reputation of any kind of criminal activity on their campuses, so denial is widespread (Tolerance 2). This was the case at Lehigh University where a 19 year old freshman Jeanne Ann Clery was brutally raped and murdered in her dorm room on April 5, 1986. What Jeanne and her parents did not know was that there were 38 viol ent crimes that happened on Lehigh campus 3 years before her murder. Jeanne parents joined together with other victims and persuaded Congress to enact the Jeanne Clery Act. The Jeanne Clery Act is the landmark federal law, or ...

Operations Management Coursework on Night Club Events - 1

Operations Management on Night Club Events - Coursework Example Chances that the super power would diminish in the next decades are clearly high. The best positioned countries to challenge America’s prominence are found in East Asia and globally by China. (Abdelnour, Wesley & Herman pg57) It is believed that if Chinas economic growth continues consistently the next two decades just in the same pace as the last two decades, then it would surpass and rival the United States of America in terms of Gross Domestic Product (GDP) .GDP is not measured in terms of dollar but in terms of purchasing power parity. Even if Chinas economic status does not does not reach the Americas standards, it is notable that the growth has created a fundamental political inspiration in the entire East Asia. The economic clout extends East Asia affecting both great powers and the developing countries due to enthusiasm for raw materials and competitive prices for low cost goods. China is resolute in climbing the technological ladder, a clear indication that it might affect United States of America economically. Already China is regarded as the most dominant military powerhouse in the entire East Asia thereby making significant strides creating excellence in the armed forces. The tense relationship between USA and Russia has been fuelled by Americans interest in Crimea with regard to the sanctions that have been attached to Russia recently by President Barrack Obama of the United States. Several banks have been blacklisted by the US government following the Russian infiltrations in Ukraine. Majority of Russian businessmen in the United States who have close links with Vladimir Putin have been expelled from the country. President Obama has also come with strategies to tame some parts of the Russian economy comprising both the oil and gas industries which form a bunch of Russians export. (Abdelnour, Wesley & Herman pg29) According to President Barack Obama, the action would interfere with the

International trade and labour and environmental standards Essay

International trade and labour and environmental standards - Essay Example Research studies by such organizations as the World Bank show that trade triggers and supports growth of economies producing growing middle class citizens in the countries (Rose, para 1-7). The two (economic growth as well as middle class population) motivate these countries to uphold environmental conservation and management as well as improve labor standards. This paper therefore intends to conduct a qualitative analysis of facts and features in international trade, labor as well as environmental standards as they are in the current day by use of available literature. Literature shows that trade agreements in international trade especially by developed and emerging economies promote economic opportunities within the emerging countries, which alleviate living standards of workers within the countries (Neary, 96). The trade agreements by the developed countries like the US provide opportunities for economic performance for indigenous industries as well as workers. Besides, the negotiations of such countries within the international trade front have been associated with improved labor standards within other countries hence the interrelation between trade Analysts as well as policy makers take a leading role in the investigating and explaining how international trade interacts with environment. For instance, a very recent debate on whether trade should be liberalized triggered the conclusions that liberalization is likely to cause increased industrial emissions whose effects are detrimental to the general environment. This on the other hand set the platform for discussion on whether tightening environmental and trade policies should be encouraged for compensation of such changes as would result from the policy changes. Besides, there has also been a growing interest in linking environmental policy and regulation efforts as well as

Week 1 Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words - 1

Week 1 - Essay Example The tool has automatic detection programs that keep history of a network system. In addition, the tool analyses all the activity and detect traffic in the network. It shows the period for which a program or application has been running and data usage for the same (Choudhary et al., 2013). Therefore, network analysers can elicit any operational challenges that can slow down or crash a system. Network analysers do detect not only viral software, but also test anti-malware programs. The analysers crosscheck the programs and monitor their operations. Network analysers equally pinpoint vulnerabilities in the anti-virus programs. After detection of suspicious software, network analysers notify a user through messages that pop up in the screen. Such messages could be in the form of warnings upon detection of any threats. Network analysers are vital in detecting unusual characteristics in a packet. The features of a system must remain standardised for efficient operations. Network analysers, therefore, compare progress activities of application and program to elicit any suspicions (Chih-Jung, 2013). Analysis of packets also entails identification of packet destinations and sources. Network analysers work through assessment of the general system or computer applications and programs (Chih-Jung, 2013). The analyses are crucial in the creation of plug-ins for specific applications. Monitoring of apps and user activities largely depend on consistent display of all the statistics on a control panel that is user-friendly. Choudhary, A. K., Harding, J., Camarinha-Matos, L. M., Lenny Koh, S., & Tiwari, M. K. (2013). Knowledge management and supporting tools for collaborative networks. International Journal Of Production Research, 51(7), 1953-1957.

Physics Project Essay Example for Free

Physics Project Essay Eyes are organs that detect light, and convert it to electro-chemical impulses in neurons. The simplest photoreceptors in conscious vision connect light to movement. In higher organisms the eye is a complex optical system which collects light from the surrounding environment; regulates its intensity through a diaphragm; focuses it through an adjustable assembly of lenses to form an image; converts this image into a set of electrical signals; and transmits these signals to the brain, through complex neural pathways that connect the eye, via the optic nerve, to the visual cortex and other areas of the brain. Eyes with resolving power have come in ten fundamentally different forms, and 96% of animal species possess a complex optical system.[1] Image-resolving eyes are present in molluscs, chordates and arthropods. [2] The simplest eyes, such as those in microorganisms, do nothing but detect whether the surroundings are light or dark, which is sufficient for the entrainment of circadian rhythms. From more complex eyes, retinal photosensitive ganglion cells send signals along the retinohypothalamic tract to the suprachiasmatic nuclei to effect circadian adjustment. Contents[hide] * 1 Overview * 2 Evolution * 3 Types of eye * 3.1 Normal eyes * 3.2 Pit eyes * 3.2.1 Spherical lensed eye * 3.2.2 Multiple lenses * 3.2.3 Refractive cornea * 3.2.4 Reflector eyes * 3.3 Compound eyes * 3.3.1 Apposition eyes * 3.3.2 Superposition eyes * 3.3.3 Parabolic superposition * 3.3.4 Other * 3.3.5 Nutrients of the eye * 4 Relationship to life requirements * 5 Visual acuity * 6 Perception of colours * 7 Rods and cones * 8 Pigmentation * 9 See also * 10 References * 10.1 Notes * 10.2 Bibliography * 11 External links| [edit] Overview Eye of the wisent, the European bison Complex eyes can distinguish shapes and colors. The visual fields of many organisms, especially predators, involve large areas of binocular vision to improve depth perception; in other organisms, eyes are located so as to maximize the field of view, such as in rabbits and horses, which have monocular vision. The first proto-eyes evolved among animals 600 million years ago, about the time of the Cambrian explosion.[3] The last common ancestor of animals possessed the biochemical toolkit necessary for vision, and more advanced eyes have evolved in 96% of animal species in six of the thirty-plus[4] main phyla.[1] In most vertebrates and some molluscs, the eye works by allowing light to enter and project onto a light-sensitive panel of cells, known as the retina, at the rear of the eye. The cone cells (for color) and the rod cells (for low-light contrasts) in the retina detect and convert light into neural signals for vision. The visual signals are then transmitted to the brain via the optic nerve. Such eyes are typically roughly spherical, filled with a transparent gel-like substance called the vitreous humour, with a focusing lens and often an iris; the relaxing or tightening of the muscles around the iris change the size of the pupil, thereby regulating the amount of light that enters the eye,[5] and reducing aberrations when there is enough light.[6] The eyes of most cephalopods, fish, amphibians and snakes have fixed lens shapes, and focusing vision is achieved by telescoping the lens—similar to how a camera focuses.[7] Compound eyes are found among the arthropods and are composed of many simple facets which, depending on the details of anatomy, may give either a single pixelated image or multiple images, per eye. Each sensor has its own lens and photosensitive cell(s). Some eyes have up to 28,000 such sensors, which are arranged hexagonally, and which can give a full 360-degree field of visio n. Compound eyes are very sensitive to motion. Some arthropods, including many Strepsiptera, have compound eyes of only a few facets, each with a retina capable of creating an image, creating vision. With each eye viewing a different thing, a fused image from all the eyes is produced in the brain, providing very different, high-resolution images. Possessing detailed hyperspectral color vision, the Mantis shrimp has been reported to have the worlds most complex color vision system.[8] Trilobites, which are now extinct, had unique compound eyes. They used clear calcite crystals to form the lenses of their eyes. In this, they differ from most other arthropods, which have soft eyes. The number of lenses in such an eye varied, however: some trilobites had only one, and some had thousands of lenses in one eye. In contrast to compound eyes, simple eyes are those that have a single lens. For example, jumping spiders have a large pair of simple eyes with a narrow field of view, supported by an array of other, smaller eyes for peripheral vision. Some insect larvae, like caterpillars, have a different type of simple eye (stemmata) which gives a rough image. Some of the simplest eyes, called ocelli, can be found in animals like some of the snails, which cannot actually see in the normal sense. They do have photosensitive cells, but no lens and no other means of projecting an image onto these cells. They can distinguish between light and dark, but no more. This enables snails to keep out of direct sunlight. In organisms dwelling near deep-sea vents, compound eyes have been secondarily simplified and adapted to spot the infra-red light produced by the hot vents–in this way the bearers can spot hot springs and avoid being boiled alive.[9] [edit] Evolution Main article: Evolution of the eye Evolution of the eye Photoreception is phylogenetically very old, with various theories of phylogenesis.[10] The common origin (monophyly) of all animal eyes is now widely accepted as fact. This is based upon the shared anatomical and genetic features of all eyes; that is, all modern eyes, varied as they are, have their origins in a proto-eye believed to have evolved some 540 million years ago.[11][12][13] The majority of the advancements in early eyes are believed to have taken only a few million years to develop, since the first predator to gain true imaging would have touched off an arms race.[14] Prey animals and competing predators alike would be at a distinct disadvantage without such capabilities and would be less likely to survive and reproduce. Hence multiple eye types and subtypes developed in parallel. Eyes in various animals show adaption to their requirements. For example, birds of prey have much greater visual acuity than humans, and some can see ultraviolet light. The different forms of ey e in, for example, vertebrates and mollusks are often cited as examples of parallel evolution, despite their distant common ancestry. The very earliest eyes, called eyespots, were simple patches of photoreceptor protein in unicellular animals. In multicellular beings, multicellular eyespots evolved, physically similar to the receptor patches for taste and smell. These eyespots could only sense ambient brightness: they could distinguish light and dark, but not the direction of the lightsource.[15] Through gradual change, as the eyespot depressed into a shallow cup shape, the ability to slightly discriminate directional brightness was achieved by using the angle at which the light hit certain cells to identify the source. The pit deepened over time, the opening diminished in size, and the number of photoreceptor cells increased, forming an effective pinhole camera that was capable of dimly distinguishing shapes.[16] The thin overgrowth of transparent cells over the eyes aperture, originally formed to prevent damage to the eyespot, allowed the segregated contents of the eye chamber to specialize into a transparent humour that optimized color filtering, blocked harmful radiation, improved the eyes refractive index, and allowed functionality outside of water. The transparent protective cells eventually split into two layers, with circulatory fluid in between that allowed wider viewing angles and greater imaging resolution, and the thickness of the transparent layer gradually increased, in most species with the transparent crystallin protein.[17] The gap between tissue layers naturally formed a bioconvex shape, an optimally ideal structure for a normal refractive index. Independently, a transparent layer and a nontransparent layer split forward from the lens: the cornea and iris. Separation of the forward layer again formed a humour, the aqueous humour. This increased refractive power and again eased circulatory problems. Formation of a nontransparent ring allowed more blood vessels, more circulation, and larger eye sizes.[17] [edit] Types of eye There are ten different eye layouts—indeed every way of capturing an image known to man, with the exceptions of zoom and Fresnel lenses. Eye types can be categorized into simple eyes, with one concave photoreceptive surface, and compound eyes, which comprise a number of individual lenses laid out on a convex surface.[1] Note that simple does not imply a reduced level of complexity or acuity. Indeed, any eye type can be adapted for almost any behavior or environment. The only limitations specific to eye types are that of resolution—the physics of compound eyes prevents them from achieving a resolution better than 1Â °. Also, superposition eyes can achieve greater sensitivity than apposition eyes, so are better suited to dark-dwelling creatures.[1] Eyes also fall into two groups on the basis of their photoreceptors cellular construction, with the photoreceptor cells either being cilliated (as in the vertebrates) or rhabdomeric. These two groups are not monophyletic; the cnidaria also possess cilliated cells, [18] and some annelids possess both.[19] [edit] Normal eyes Human eyes are examples of normal eyes Simple eyes are rather ubiquitous, and lens-bearing eyes have evolved at least seven times in vertebrates, cephalopods, annelids, crustacea and cubozoa.[20] [edit Pit eyes Pit eyes, also known as stemma, are eye-spots which may be set into a pit to reduce the angles of light that enters and affects the eyespot, to allow the organism to deduce the angle of incoming light.[1] Found in about 85% of phyla, these basic forms were probably the precursors to more advanced types of simple eye. They are small, comprising up to about 100 cells covering about 100 Â µm.[1] The directionality can be improved by reducing the size of the aperture, by incorporating a reflective layer behind the receptor cells, or by filling the pit with a refractile material.[1] [edit] Spherical lensed eye The resolution of pit eyes can be greatly improved by incorporating a material with a higher refractive index to form a lens, which may greatly reduce the blur radius encountered—hence increasing the resolution obtainable.[1] The most basic form, still seen in some gastropods and annelids, consists of a lens of one refractive index. A far sharper image can be obtained using materials with a high refractive index, decreasing to the edges; this decreases the focal length and thus allows a sharp image to form on the retina.[1] This also allows a larger aperture for a given sharpness of image, allowing more light to enter the lens; and a flatter lens, reducing spherical aberration.[1] Such an inhomogeneous lens is necessary in order for the focal length to drop from about 4 times the lens radius, to 2.5 radii.[1] Heterogeneous eyes have evolved at least eight times: four or more times in gastropods, once in the copepods, once in the annelids and once in the cephalopods.[1] No aquatic organisms possess homogeneous lenses; presumably the evolutionary pressure for a heterogeneous lens is great enough for this stage to be quickly outgrown.[1] This eye creates an image that is sharp enough that motion of the eye can cause significant blurring. To minimize the effect of eye motion while the animal moves, most such eyes have stabilizing eye muscles.[1] The ocelli of insects bear a simple lens, but their focal point always lies behind the retina; consequently they can never form a sharp image. This capitulates the function of the eye. Ocelli (pit-type eyes of arthropods) blur the image across the whole retina, and are consequently excellent at responding to rapid changes in light intensity across the whole visual field; this fast response is further accelerated by the large nerve bundles which rush the information to the brain.[21] Focusing the image would also cause the suns image to be focused on a few receptors, with the possibility of damage under the intense light; shielding the receptors would block out some light and thus reduce their sensitivity.[21] This fast response has led to suggestions that the ocelli of insects are used mainly in flight, because they can be used to detect sudden changes in which way is up (because light, especially UV light which is absorbed by vegetation, usually comes from above).[21] [edit] Multiple lenses Some marine organisms bear more than one lens; for instance the copepod Pontella has three. The outer has a parabolic surface, countering the effects of spherical aberration while allowing a sharp image to be formed. Another copepod, Copilias eyes have two lenses, arranged like those in a telescope.[1] Such arrangements are rare and poorly understood, but represent an interesting alternative construction. An interesting use of multiple lenses is seen in some hunters such as eagles and jumping spiders, which have a refractive cornea (discussed next): these have a negative lens, enlarging the observed image by up to 50% over the receptor cells, thus increasing their optical resolution.[1] [edit] Refractive cornea In the eyes of most mammals, birds, reptiles, and most other terrestrial vertebrates (along with spiders and some insect larvae) the vitreous fluid has a higher refractive index than the air, relieving the lens of the function of reducing the focal length. This has freed it up for fine adjustments of focus, allowing a very high resolution to be obtained.[1] As with spherical lenses, the problem of spherical aberration caused by the lens can be countered either by using an inhomogeneous lens material, or by flattening the lens.[1] Flattening the lens has a disadvantage; the quality of vision is diminished away from the main line of focus, meaning that animals requiring all-round vision are detrimented. Such animals often display an inhomogeneous lens instead.[1] As mentioned above, a refractive cornea is only useful out of water; in water, there is no difference in refractive index between the vitreous fluid and the surrounding water. Hence creatures which have returned to the waterâ €”penguins and seals, for example—lose their refractive cornea and return to lens-based vision. An alternative solution, borne by some divers, is to have a very strong cornea.[1] [edit] Reflector eyes An alternative to a lens is to line the inside of the eye with mirrors, and reflect the image to focus at a central point.[1] The nature of these eyes means that if one were to peer into the pupil of an eye, one would see the same image that the organism would see, reflected back out.[1] Many small organisms such as rotifers, copeopods and platyhelminths use such organs, but these are too small to produce usable images.[1] Some larger organisms, such as scallops, also use reflector eyes. The scallop Pecten has up to 100 millimeter-scale reflector eyes fringing the edge of its shell. It detects moving objects as they pass successive lenses.[1] There is at least one vertebrate, the spookfish, whose eyes include reflective optics for focusing of light. Each of the two eyes of a spookfish collects light from both above and below; the light coming from above is focused by a lens, while that coming from below, by a curved mirror composed of many layers of small reflective plates made of g uanine crystals.[22] [edit] Compound eyes An image of a house fly compound eye surface by using Scanning Electron Microscope Anatomy of the compound eye of an insect Arthropods such as this carpenter bee have compound eyes A compound eye may consist of thousands of individual photoreceptor units or ommatidia (ommatidium, singular). The image perceived is a combination of inputs from the numerous ommatidia (individual eye units), which are located on a convex surface, thus pointing in slightly different directions. Compared with simple eyes, compound eyes possess a very large view angle, and can detect fast movement and, in some cases, the polarization of light.[23] Because the individual lenses are so small, the effects of diffraction impose a limit on the possible resolution that can be obtained. This can only be countered by increasing lens size and number. To see with a resolution comparable to our simple eyes, humans would require compound eyes which would each reach the size of their head. Compound eyes fall into two groups: apposition eyes, which form multiple inverted images, and superposition eyes, which form a single erect image.[24] Compound eyes are common in arthropods, and are also present in annelids and some bivalved molluscs.[25] Compound eyes, in arthropods at least, grow at their margins by the addition of new ommatidia.[26] Structure of the ommatidia of apposition compound eyes [edit] Apposition eyes Apposition eyes are the most common form of eye, and are presumably the ancestral form of compound eye. They are found in all arthropod groups, although they may have evolved more than once within this phylum.[1] Some annelids and bivalves also have apposition eyes. They are also possessed by Limulus, the horseshoe crab, and there are suggestions that other chelicerates developed their simple eyes by reduction from a compound starting point.[1] (Some caterpillars appear to have evolved compound eyes from simple eyes in the opposite fashion.) Apposition eyes work by gathering a number of images, one from each eye, and combining them in the brain, with each eye typically contributing a single point of information. The typical apposition eye has a lens focusing light from one direction on the rhabdom, while light from other directions is absorbed by the dark wall of the ommatidium. In the other kind of apposition eye, found in the Strepsiptera, lenses are not fused to one another, and each forms an entire image; these images are combined in the brain. This is called the schizochroal compound eye or the neural superposition eye. Because images are combined additively, this arrangement allows vision under lower light levels.[1] [edit] Superposition eyes The second type is named the superposition eye. The superposition eye is divided into three types; the refracting, the reflecting and the parabolic superposition eye. The refracting superposition eye has a gap between the lens and the rhabdom, and no side wall. Each lens takes light at an angle to its axis and reflects it to the same angle on the other side. The result is an image at half the radius of the eye, which is where the tips of the rhabdoms are. This kind is used mostly by nocturnal insects. In the parabolic superposition compound eye type, seen in arthropods such as mayflies, the parabolic surfaces of the inside of each facet focus light from a reflector to a sensor array. Long-bodied decapod crustaceans such as shrimp, prawns, crayfish and lobsters are alone in having reflecting superposition eyes, which also have a transparent gap but use corner mirrors instead of lenses. [edit] Parabolic superposition This eye type functions by refracting light, then using a parabolic mirror to focus the image; it combines features of superposition and apposition eyes.[9] [edit] Other The compound eyes of a dragonfly Good fliers like flies or honey bees, or prey-catching insects like praying mantis or dragonflies, have specialized zones of ommatidia organized into a fovea area which gives acute vision. In the acute zone the eyes are flattened and the facets larger. The flattening allows more ommatidia to receive light from a spot and therefore higher resolution. There are some exceptions from the types mentioned above. Some insects have a so-called single lens compound eye, a transitional type which is something between a superposition type of the multi-lens compound eye and the single lens eye found in animals with simple eyes. Then there is the mysid shrimp Dioptromysis paucispinosa. The shrimp has an eye of the refracting superposition type, in the rear behind this in each eye there is a single large facet that is three times in diameter the others in the eye and behind this is an enlarged crystalline cone. This projects an upright image on a specialized retina. The resulting eye is a mixture of a simple eye within a compound eye. Another version is the pseudofaceted eye, as seen in Scutigera. This type of eye consists of a cluster of numerous ocelli on each side of the head, organized in a way that resembles a true compound eye. The body of Ophiocoma wendtii, a type of brittle star, is covered with ommatidia, turning its whole skin into a compound eye. The same is true of many chitons. [edit] Nutrients of the eye The ciliary body is triangular in horizontal section and is coated by a double layer, the ciliary epithelium. The inner layer is transparent and covers the vitreous body, and is continuous from the neural tissue of the retina. The outer layer is highly pigmented, continuous with the retinal pigment epithelium, and constitutes the cells of the dilator muscle. The vitreous is the transparent, colorless, gelatinous mass that fills the space between the lens of the eye and the retina lining the back of the eye.[27] It is produced by certain retinal cells. It is of rather similar composition to the cornea, but contains very few cells (mostly phagocytes which remove unwanted cellular debris in the visual field, as well as the hyalocytes of Balazs of the surface of the vitreous, which reprocess the hyaluronic acid), no blood vessels, and 98-99% of its volume is water (as opposed to 75% in the cornea) with salts, sugars, vitrosin (a type of collagen), a network of collagen type II fibers with the mucopolysaccharide hyaluronic acid, and also a wide array of proteins in micro amounts. Amazingly, with so little solid matter, it tautly holds the eye. [edit]Relationship to life requirements Eyes are generally adapted to the environment and life requirements of the organism which bears them. For instance, the distribution of photoreceptors tends to match the area in which the highest acuity is required, with horizon-scanning organisms, such as those that live on the African plains, having a horizontal line of high-density ganglia, while tree-dwelling creatures which require good all-round vision tend to have a symmetrical distribution of ganglia, with acuity decreasing outwards from the centre. Of course, for most eye types, it is impossible to diverge from a spherical form, so only the density of optical receptors can be altered. In organisms with compound eyes, it is the number of ommatidia rather than ganglia that reflects the region of highest data acquisition.[1]:23-4 Optical superposition eyes are constrained to a spherical shape, but other forms of compound eyes may deform to a shape where more ommatidia are aligned to, say, the horizon, without altering the size or density of individual ommatidia.[28] Eyes of horizon-scanning organisms have stalks so they can be easily aligned to the horizon when this is inclined, for example if the animal is on a slope.[29] An extension of this concept is that the eyes of predators typically have a zone of very acute vision at their centre, to assist in the identification of prey.[28] In deep water organisms, it may not be the centre of the eye that is enlarged. The hyperiid amphipods are deep water animals that feed on organisms above them. Their eyes are almost divided into two, with the upper region thought to be involved in detecting the silhouettes of potential prey—or predators—against the faint light of the sky above. Accordingly, deeper water hyperiids, where the light against which the silhouettes must be compared is dimmer, have larger upper-eyes, and may lose the lower portion of their eyes altogether.[28] Depth perception can be enhanced by having eyes which are enlarged in one direction; distorting the eye slightly allows the distance to the object to be estimated with a high degree of accuracy.[9] Acuity is higher among male organisms that mate in mid-air, as they need to be able to spot and assess potential mates against a very large backdrop.[28] On the other hand, the eyes of organisms which operate in low light levels, such as around dawn and dusk or in deep water, tend to be larger to increase the amount of light that can be captured.[28] It is not only the shape of the eye that may be affected by lifestyle. Eyes can be the most visible parts of organisms, and this can act as a pressure on organisms to have more transparent eyes at the cost of function.[28] Eyes may be mounted on stalks to provide better all-round vision, by lifting them above an organisms carapace; this also allows them to track predators or prey without moving the head.[9] [edit] Visual acuity A hawks eye Visual acuity, or resolving power, is the ability to distinguish fine detail and is the property of cones.[30] It is often measured in cycles per degree (CPD), which measures an angular resolution, or how much an eye can differentiate one object from another in terms of visual angles. Resolution in CPD can be measured by bar charts of different numbers of white/black stripe cycles. For example, if each pattern is 1.75 cm wide and is placed at 1 m distance from the eye, it will subtend an angle of 1 degree, so the number of white/black bar pairs on the pattern will be a measure of the cycles per degree of that pattern. The highest such number that the eye can resolve as stripes, or distinguish from a gray block, is then the measurement of visual acuity of the eye. For a human eye with excellent acuity, the maximum theoretical resolution is 50 CPD[31] (1.2 arcminute per line pair, or a 0.35 mm line pair, at 1 m). A rat can resolve only about 1 to 2 CPD.[32] A horse has higher acuity through most of the visual field of its eyes than a human has, but does not match the high acuity of the human eyes central fovea region. Spherical aberration limits the resolution of a 7 mm pupil to about 3 arcminutes per line pair. At a pupil diameter of 3 mm, the spherical aberration is greatly reduced, resulting in an improved resolution of approximately 1.7 arcminutes per line pair.[33] A resolution of 2 arcminutes per line pair, equivalent to a 1 arcminute gap in an optotype, corresponds to 20/20 (normal vision) in humans. [edit] Perception of colours Colour vision is the faculty of the organism to distinguish lights of different spectral qualities.[34] All organisms are restricted to a small range of electromagnetic spectrum; this varies from creature to creature, but is mainly between 400 and 700 nm.[35] This is a rather small section of the electromagnetic spectrum, probably reflecting the submarine evolution of the organ: water blocks out all but two small windows of the EM spectrum, and there has been no evolutionary pressure among land animals to broaden this range.[36] The most sensitive pigment, rhodopsin, has a peak response at 500 nm.[37] Small changes to the genes coding for this protein can tweak the peak response by a few nm;[2] pigments in the lens can also filter incoming light, changing the peak response.[2] Many organisms are unable to discriminate between colours, seeing instead in shades of grey; color vision necessitates a range of pigment cells which are primarily sensitive to smaller ranges of the spectrum. In primates, geckos, and other organisms, these take the form of cone cells, from which the more sensitive rod cells evolved.[37] Even if organisms are physically capable of discriminating different colours, this does not necessarily mean that they can perceive the different colours; only with behavioural tests can this be deduced.[2] Most organisms with colour vision are able to detect ultraviolet light. This high energy light can be damaging to receptor cells. With a few exceptions (snakes, placental mammals), most organisms avoid these effects by having absorbent oil droplets around their cone cells. The alternative, developed by organisms that had lost these oil droplets in the course of evolution, is to make the lens impervious to UV light — this precludes the possibility of any UV light being detected, as it does not even reach the retina.[37] [edit] Rods and cones The retina contains two major types of light-sensitive photoreceptor cells used for vision: the rods and the cones. Rods cannot distinguish colours, but are responsible for low-light (scotopic) monochrome (black-and-white) vision; they work well in dim light as they contain a pigment, rhodopsin (visual purple), which is sensitive at low light intensity, but saturates at higher (photopic) intensities. Rods are distributed throughout the retina but there are none at the fovea and none at the blind spot. Rod density is greater in the peripheral retina than in the central retina. Cones are responsible for colour vision. They require brighter light to function than rods require. In humans, there are three types of cones, maximally sensitive to long-wavelength, medium-wavelength, and short-wavelength light (often referred to as red, green, and blue, respectively, though the sensitivity peaks are not actually at these colours). The colour seen is the combined effect of stimuli to, and responses from, these three types of cone cells. Cones are mostly concentrated in and near the fovea. Only a few are present at the sides of the retina. Objects are seen most sharply in focus when their images fall on the fovea, as when one looks at an object directly. Cone cells and rods are connected through intermediate cells in the retina to nerve fibres of the optic nerve. When rods and cones are stimulated by light, the nerves send off impulses through these fibres to the brain.[37] [edit] Pigmentation The pigment molecules used in the eye are various, but can be used to define the evolutionary distance between different groups, and can also be an aid in determining which are closely related – although problems of convergence do exist.[37] Opsins are the pigments involved in photoreception. Other pigments, such as melanin, are used to shield the photoreceptor cells from light leaking in from the sides. The opsin protein group evolved long before the last common ancestor of animals, and has continued to diversify since.[2] There are two types of opsin involved in vision; c-opsins, which are associated with ciliary-type photoreceptor cells, and r-opsins, associated with rhabdomeric photoreceptor cells.[38] The eyes of vertebrates usually contain cilliary cells with c-opsins, and (bilaterian) invertebrates have rhabdomeric cells in the eye with r-opsins. However, some ganglion cells of vertebrates express r-opsins, suggesting that their ancestors used this pigment in vision, an d that remnants survive in the eyes.[38] Likewise, c-opsins have been found to be expressed in the brain of some invertebrates. They may have been expressed in ciliary cells of larval eyes, which were subsequently resorbed into the brain on metamorphosis to the adult form.[38] C-opsins are also found in some derived bilaterian-invertebrate eyes, such as the pallial eyes of the bivalve molluscs; however, the lateral eyes (which were presumably the ancestral type for this group, if eyes evolved once there) always use r-opsins.[38] Cnidaria, which are an outgroup to the taxa mentioned above, express c-opsins but r-opsins are yet to be found in this group.[38] Incidentally, the melanin produced in the cnidaria is produced in the same fashion as that in vertebrates, suggesting the common descent of this pigment.[38]